Inaccurate impressions about Appalachian people and culture

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A family sitting on their farmhouse porch in the upper Tennessee Valley region of East Tennessee, circa 1933

The Appalachian region and its people are mostly viewed negatively due to the "Appalachian Stereotype". According to Stuart Hall, a scholar of cultural studies, a stereotype can be described as using images, tools, and identity to understand why people make certain judgments.[1] These are generalizations that people, especially those that live outside the region, have towards the place and its inhabitants. Historically, media sources have played a significant role in promoting these stereotypes.[2] Due to this, the world outside the region largely views the Appalachian area as lawless, violent, and uneducated.[3]

## Contents

* 1 History of Appalachia
* 2 Stereotypes of Appalachians
* 3 Discrimination against Appalachian individuals
* 4 Representations of Appalachians in popular culture
* 5 References

## History of Appalachia[edit]

The first inhabitants of the Appalachian region were Native Americans, such as the Powhatan, Saponi, Monacan, and Cherokee groups.[4] The people of Appalachia can trace their ancestral background from the large migration of Scotch-Irish where their ancestors used to live.[5]

Appalachian mountains

The Scotch-Irish moved to the region, as well as the African-Americans who were set free from slavery.[6] The population kept on growing as more communities migrated to Appalachia. One of the biggest populations that the region ever recorded was around 1870 to 1950.[7]

Notably, the increased population growth resulting from the expansion of coal mining attracted various immigrants. [6] Despite there being hopes of providing a rich lifestyle to the coal mine workers, they lived under low life standards due to poverty.[6] Miners were paid by the ton of coal produced, instead of an hourly rate.[3] Due to this, the economy stayed poor and struggled to allow the region to prosper.

Pre-civil war era, the majority of the miners within the Appalachian region were of Irish, Scottish, or Welsh descent. As they struggled to deal with the low wage, workers started to create unions and benevolent societies. The Workingmen's Benevolent Society won some concessions regarding class tensions, insufficient wages, and poor living conditions, but none were enough to make significant differences. This generated violence from the miners. [3]

After the Civil War, violence arose between the people of the Appalachian region and the state militia, causing the deaths of hundreds.[3] Continued conflicts between the coal mine workers and the mine owners and operators caused massacres such as the Matewan massacre.

## Stereotypes of Appalachians[edit]

Appalachian individuals are perceived largely to be impoverished, white, rural, lazy, and rough around the edges. Appalachians are also stereotyped to be hillbillies. NPR describes the stereotypical portrayal of Appalachians as "children in sepia-toned clothes with dirt-smeared faces. Weathered, sunken-eyed women on trailer steps chain-smoking Camels. Teenagers clad in Carhartt and Mossy Oak loitering outside long-shuttered businesses."[6] Other common Appalachian stereotypes include inbreeding, poor dental hygiene, and wearing no shoes. [8]

According to Professor Roberta M. Campbell of Miami University Hamilton, the "stereotype of the backward, barefoot, poor white hillbilly" is the most common stereotype of Appalachian people, but that the stereotype "obscures the realities of race and racism in Appalachia." Stereotyping Appalachian people as being poor white people thus contributes to the "invisibility of blacks in Appalachia" as well as Hispanics and other racialized people. Professor Wilburn Hayden, Jr. of York University, a leading scholar of Black Appalachian people, has criticized "the perception within Appalachia, as well as outside the region, that whites are the only significant group living there and/or that other groups are so small that their presence in the region is of little consequence."[9]

The traditional Appalachian dialect and accent also comes with a slew of stereotypes and consequences for those who bear it. Those with Appalachian accents or who use Appalachian dialect are perceived to be less educated and less wealthy.[10] There is also the incorrect theory that Appalachian English is closely related to Elizabethan English, or that it has not progressed far past Elizabethan English.[11] These stereotypes harm the access to opportunities and impressions of Appalachian people outside of Appalachia. As a result of these negative stereotypes, thousands of people from the Appalachian region face judgment and, intense scrutiny on a daily basis.[12]

During the appraisal called "Community Action in Appalachia" during the War on Poverty, it was found that the population of those who wanted a change in how they lived was split into two. The group helped provide community centers throughout Appalachia, with hopes of allowing individuals to become more educated and view other, newer technologies created by society. Some embraced the new ideals and modernism provided by the community centers created, and others annexed them with the thought that government intervention was not needed within their area.[13] After the appraisal was finished, very little changed and development was recorded. Small instances across the counties, but nothing caused significant change.[13] This created a new view on Appalachia, and it caused many to believe that the Appalachians simply did not want to change and did not embrace new parts of modern society.

Most of these stereotypes come from things of the past. The rough look of those who live in the Appalachian region comes from times in the late 1800s when Appalachia was hit with a depression due to economic over expansion, decrease in money supply, and a stock crash.[3] It also arises from the look of miner, who would come home looking very dirty and worn because of the conditions they were working under in the mines. After the appraisal "Community Action in Appalachia", the public started to view the region as underdeveloped and stuck in the past. Due to the fact that the region is heavily dependent on labor jobs, majority of people do not feel the need to go past a high school education, thus causing the stereotype that Appalachian individuals are uneducated.[14]

## Discrimination against Appalachian individuals[edit]

Discrimination against Appalachians is significant enough that some municipalities, such as Cincinnati, have enacted laws making it illegal to discriminate against peoples of Appalachian identity.[15] The Human Rights Ordinance policy was passed in 1992 by the City of Cincinnati, which explicitly proclaimed it forbidden to discriminate against characteristics such as race, national origin, sex, religion.[16][17] Before the policy was declared, the U.S. District Court declined the admission of Appalachians in the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[16]

Appalachia's social, cultural, and economic features establish an identity that consistently defines characteristics that infuse prejudices and distinguishes them from other minority groups. The Appalachians are often victims of locational prejudice, where people often discriminate against due to their location and where they identify as home. The people of Appalachia are stereotyped as the poor White minority, tending to fuse Appalachia into one community, one state, which would make Appalachia the third largest state in the nation due to population.[16]

Derogatory language against Appalachians includes the terms "Redneck" and "Hillbilly." These terms often come up in comedic use, stereotyped as the role of the "hillbilly fool".[18] The term "Hillbilly" was first coined in 1899, around the time coal industries made an appearance in the Appalachian communities.[19] In reference to Appalachia, the utilization of the word "Hillbilly" has become such a commonplace that the term is often used to characterize the sociological and geographical happenings of the area. A major example of this occurrence is the characterization of the emigration of residents of the Appalachian Mountains to industrial cities in northern, midwestern, and western states, primarily in the years following World War II as the "Hillbilly Highway". The term Redneck is often met with pride among mountain people.[19]

For many years, the term "Mountain Whites" existed as an official Library of Congress Subject Heading. Criticized for its false representation of Appalachia as a racially homogeneous region and because it was a term applied by outsiders to a group of people who do not necessarily identify as a specific ethnic group, it was replaced with the subject heading "Appalachians (people)".[20]

Within the region, discrimination against women is also a very big issue. Due to Appalachia being known for their coal mining industry it makes it difficult for women to find well-paying jobs. Many women have to settle for working "unskilled" labor.[21]

## Representations of Appalachians in popular culture[edit]

* The 1972 film Deliverance is set and filmed in the Appalachian mountains of Georgia. It features negative stereotypes of Appalachian people, portraying the people as inbred, backwards, and dangerous. It depicts the region's poverty and explores Appalachian stereotypes. The 2012 documentary The Deliverance of Rabun County explores how the film affected the people in the region, and how they felt about their portrayal. Many of those interviewed for the documentary felt resentment for the way in which they were portrayed.[22]
* The horror series Wrong Turn (film series), consists of seven individual movies released between 2003 and 2021. Each film in the series is set in various locations throughout rural West Virginia and follows the story of a group a travelers who get lost in the backwoods of the Appalachian mountains. Stereotypes of Appalachia are most depicted in the film as the inbred and cannibalistic monsters who hunt and kill the group of travelers throughout each movie.
* The Duke boys in the feature-film version of The Dukes of Hazzard state that "actually, we prefer to be called Appalachian Americans" when a group of urban (Atlantan) African Americans calls them "hillbillies" in response to their Confederate flag and perceived blackface.
* In the 1991 horror film The Silence of the Lambs, Jodie Foster stars as FBI Agent Clarice Starling, who is from a small town in West Virginia. The villainous Hannibal Lecter uses her Appalachian upbringing as psychological leverage, mocking her accent, asking if her father was a coal miner, and telling her that she is "not more than one generation from poor white trash".[23] Starling's character also appears in the 2001 sequel, Hannibal, as well as the 2021 television series Clarice.[24][25] Her character is adapted from the books The Silence of the Lambs and Hannibal by Thomas Harris.
* Starting in 2004, Saturday Night Live had a recurring sketch called Appalachian Emergency Room, which drew on negative stereotypes of rural Appalachians. Seth Meyers, Maya Rudolph, Kenan Thompson, Amy Poehler, Darrell Hammond, and Chris Parnell all appeared regularly in the sketches. Notably, Johnny Knoxville appeared in one sketch.
* In 2004, Abercrombie & Fitch released a shirt that said "It is all relative in West Virginia," alluding to the Appalachian stereotype of inbreeding and incest.[26]
* The FX TV series Justified (2010–2015), which was set in Harlan, Kentucky, featured various "unsavory characters" running afoul of the law, including "a moonshine-making Appalachian matriarch of a law-defying hillbilly family" and the Dixie Mafia.[27] The series received praise from some critics for its complex characters that went beyond stereotypes.[28][29]
* The MTV reality television series Buckwild, which ran for one season in 2013, has received criticism for painting the young adults of Appalachia in a bad light—the most notable of this criticism being a letter from West Virginia Senator Joe Manchin to the president of MTV written a month before the show aired.[30]
* The memoir Hillbilly Elegy by J. D. Vance received substantive attention upon its publication in 2016. The book twice topped The New York Times Bestseller List,[31][32] but it has also been criticized for overextending generalizations of Vance's individual experience to all of Appalachia.[33] In 2020, Netflix released a film adaptation of Hillbilly Elegy directed by Ron Howard. It has been criticized for many of the same issues as the book.[34]
* Often positioned as a direct challenge to the generalizations of Hillbilly Elegy, historian Elizabeth Catte published What You're Getting Wrong About Appalachia in 2018. In the book, Catte asserts that "the story of Appalachia cannot be separated from the story of the United States and the historical forces that have shaped us."[35]
* In 2019, scholars Anthony Harkins and Meredith McCarroll co-edited an anthology called Appalachian Reckoning: A Region Responds to Hillbilly Elegy through West Virginia University Press.[33] The anthology features writing from a number of authors across the Appalachia region.
* The legislation, War on poverty launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to eliminate America's poor conditions, had published images of impoverished Appalachians in order to gain financial support. Appalachia was one of the major focuses for nationwide assistance.[36][19]

## References[edit]

1. ^ Massey, Carissa (2007). "Appalachian Stereotypes: Cultural History, Gender, and Sexual Rhetoric". Journal of Appalachian Studies. 13 (1/2): 124–136. JSTOR 41446780.
2. ^ Young, Jeff (2020-10-02). "New Appalachian Journalism Outlets Tackle Stereotypes, Media Economy". 89.3 WFPL News Louisville. Retrieved 2021-03-27.
3. ^ a b c d e Andreescu, Viviana (2009). "Violent Appalachia: The media's role in the creation and perpetuation of an American myth". Journal of the Institute of Justice & International Studies. 9: 62–75 - via ResearchGate.
4. ^ "Appalachian Culture & History of the Blue Ridge Mountains". Blue Ridge Mountains Travel Guide. 2020-11-15. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
5. ^ Brashear, Ivy (2016). Rural Reality: How Reality Television Portrayals of Appalachian People Impact Their View of Their Culture (MS thesis). University of Kentucky. doi:10.13023/ETD.2016.112.
6. ^ a b c d Thompson, Aaron (6 April 2014). "Stereotypes Of Appalachia Obscure A Diverse Picture". NPR. Retrieved 2021-04-21.
7. ^ Stone, Lyman (2016-06-02). "A Brief Population History of Central Appalachia". Medium. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
8. ^ Lilly, Jessica (24 September 2014). "Rising Above Appalachian Stereotypes for a Higher Education". WV Public Broadcasting. Retrieved March 24, 2022.
9. ^ "The Myth of Appalachian Whiteness: Stereotyping and Racism from the Perspective of a White Appalachian Woman" (PDF). Urban Appalachian Community Coalition. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
10. ^ Luhman, Reid (1990). "Appalachian English Stereotypes: Language Attitudes in Kentucky". Language in Society. 19 (3): 331–348. doi:10.1017/S0047404500014548. ISSN 0047-4045. JSTOR 4168150. S2CID 144649957.
11. ^ Hazen, Kirk. "Combatting stereotypes about Appalachian dialects". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-04-08.
12. ^ Ball, Amie (January 2014). "The Effect of Appalachian Regional Dialect on Performance Appraisal and Leadership Perceptions". Archived from the original on 2018-04-13.
13. ^ a b Community Action in Appalachia: An Appraisal of the "War on Poverty" in a Rural Setting of Southeastern Kentucky. University of Kentucky, 1968.
14. ^ "New Opportunity School for Women: A unique career and education program in Appalachia". ncda.org. National Career Development Association. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
15. ^ "Chapter 914 - Unlawful Discriminatory Practices". Retrieved 10 June 2015.
16. ^ a b c Rhee, William; Scott, Stephen (2018-12-01). "Geographic Discrimination: Of Place, Space, Hillbillies, and Home". West Virginia Law Review. 121 (2).
17. ^ "Human Rights Ordinance Toolkit | Equality Florida". www.eqfl.org. Retrieved 2021-03-07.
18. ^ Beech, Jennifer (November 2004). "Redneck and Hillbilly Discourse in the Writing Classroom: Classifying Critical Pedagogies of Whiteness". College English. 67 (2): 172–186. doi:10.2307/4140716. JSTOR 4140716.
19. ^ a b c Comer, Honey (2006-05-06). "Portrayals of Appalachia in America's Major Metropolitan Newspapers". Electronic Theses and Dissertations.
20. ^ "SACO Process – ANSSWeb". Retrieved 2021-03-06.
21. ^ Wilkerson, Jessica (24 January 2019). "The Appalachian Women's Rights Organization and The Lost Promises of Feminism". Books. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
22. ^ "40 years later, 'Deliverance' causes mixed feelings in Georgia". 22 August 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
23. ^ Demme, Jonathan (1991-02-14), The Silence of the Lambs (Crime, Drama, Thriller), Jodie Foster, Anthony Hopkins, Lawrence A. Bonney, Kasi Lemmons, Strong Heart/Demme Production, Orion Pictures, retrieved 2021-03-06
24. ^ Scott, Ridley (2001-02-09), Hannibal (Crime, Drama, Thriller), Anthony Hopkins, Julianne Moore, Gary Oldman, Ray Liotta, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Universal Pictures, Dino De Laurentiis Company, retrieved 2021-03-06
25. ^ Clarice (Crime, Drama, Mystery, Thriller), Rebecca Breeds, Michael Cudlitz, Jayne Atkinson, Lucca De Oliveira, Secret Hideout, Tiny Core of Rage Entertainment, The Elizabeth Diaries, 2021-02-11, retrieved 2021-03-06`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: others (link)
26. ^ "Abercrombie & Fitch shirt angers West Virginians". NBC News.
27. ^ "Margo Martindale: A 'Justified' Moonshine Matriarch". NPR. September 12, 2011.
28. ^ "Justified: Kentucky, the Storyline, not the Stereotype". Ace Weekly. 4 April 2012. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
29. ^ Egner, Jeremy (28 January 2011). "Walton Goggins - 'Justified' - Southern Son - TV". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
30. ^ de Moraes, Lisa (2012-12-07). "MTV 'Buckwild' hits pay dirt with Sen. Joe Manchin's angry letter". Washington Post. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
31. ^ Barro, Josh. "The new memoir 'Hillbilly Elegy' highlights the core social-policy question of our time". Business Insider. Retrieved 2021-03-03.
32. ^ Stenis, Jenny Foster (2017-04-03). "Book Review: Nonfiction in Motion: Connecting Preschoolers with Nonfiction Books through Movement". Reference & User Services Quarterly. 56 (3): 213. doi:10.5860/rusq.56n3.213b. ISSN 1094-9054.
33. ^ a b Garner, Dwight (2019-02-25). "'Hillbilly Elegy' Had Strong Opinions About Appalachians. Now, Appalachians Return the Favor. (Published 2019)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-03-03.
34. ^ "Hillbilly Elegy is a tired, shrill drama of Trump-era myth-making". Film. 10 November 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-03.
35. ^ "Historian Makes Case For 'What You Are Getting Wrong About Appalachia' In New Book". NPR. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
36. ^ "Appalachia's Place in the War on Poverty > Appalachian Voices". 2014-04-09. Retrieved 2021-03-06.

* v
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Appalachia

People of the Appalachian Mountains in the Eastern United States

Ethnic groups|

* Black-Dutch
* Carmel Indians
* Cherokee (Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians)
* Chestnut Ridge people
* Melungeon
* Scotch-Irish
* formerly Kanawha Valley people, Koasati, Shawnee, and Yuchi

History|

* Battle of Blair Mountain
* Coal Creek War
* Coal strike of 1902
* French–Eversole feud
* Hatfield–McCoy feud (Battle of the Grapevine Creek)
* Lincoln County feud
* Hillbilly Highway (Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit)
* Kentucky County, Virginia
* Overmountain Men
* Paint Creek–Cabin Creek strike of 1912
* Southwest Territory
* Trans-Appalachia
* Wilderness Road
* West Virginia coal wars
* 1920 Alabama coal strike

Society|

* Appalachia
* Social and economic stratification in Appalachia
* Appalachian Americans
* Appalachian English
* Childbirth in rural Appalachia
* Settlement school

In popular culture|

* Appalachian stereotypes
* The Beverly Hillbillies
* Deliverance
* Hillbilly
* Moonshine in popular culture
* Mountain white
* Poor White
* Redneck
* Redneck joke
* The Hatfields and the McCoys

Traditional music|

* Appalachian music
* Appalachian dulcimer
* Blackberry Blossom (tune)
* Bluegrass fiddle
* Bluegrass music
* Clogging
* Cripple Creek (folk song)
* Cumberland Gap (folk song)
* East Tennessee Blues
* Hootenanny
* In the Pines
* Nottamun Town
* Shady Grove (song)
* Tom Dooley (song)

Historical individuals|

* Francis Asbury
* Daniel Boone
* Davy Crockett
* John Gordon (militia captain)
* Devil Anse Hatfield
* Abraham Lincoln
* Belle Starr

Part of a series on hill people around the world

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Stereotypes in the United States

Ethnic & national|

* African and Black Americans
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* European and White Americans
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Regional & social|

* Appalachians
* Cowboys
* Poor Whites
* Crackers
* Redlegs
* Rednecks
* Mountain Whites
* Ugly Americans
* Valley Girls
* White Southerners
* White Trash

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White people

* Bold refers to countries, regions and territories in which the majority ethnic group is generally considered to be people of European descent.

European emigration
by location|

| Africa|

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Asia|

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South America|

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Oceania|

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Historical concepts|

* Apartheid
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Sociological
phenomena and theories|

* Acting white (Passing as white)
* Angry white man
* Missing white woman syndrome
* Skin whitening
* White flight
* White guilt
* White privilege
* Whiteness studies
* Whitewashing in film
* White savior
* White demographic decline

Negative stereotypes of Whites|

* In the United States
* Poor Whites
* Redlegs
* Rednecks
* Mountain whites
* White trash
* Karen
* Angry white man
* Becky
* Basic
* Appalachian stereotypes

White identity politics|

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Ethnicity and Colour|

* Ethnic groups in Europe
* Light skin

* Commons

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